ख्रिस्ती समाजात जातींनी आणि जमातींनी प्रवेश केला

मध्ययुगीन काळात, ब्रिटिश आमदानीत आणि नंतरही भारतातल्या ख्रिस्ती समाजात स्थानिक संस्कृतीतील विविध जातींनी आणि जमातींनी प्रवेश केला आणि तिथे आपले पाय मजबूत रोवले. हे कसे घडले त्याची ही त्याची ही कथा.

केरळ राज्यात ख्रिस्ती धर्म पहिल्या शतकापासून आहे. तिथले ख्रिश्चन लोक येशू ख्रिस्ताच्या बारा प्रेषितांपैकी एक असलेल्या संत थॉमसचा वारसा सांगतात. सोळाव्या आणि सतराव्या शतकांत युरोपियन मिशनरींनी गोव्यात, मुंबईजवळ पालघर जिल्ह्यात वसई येथे आणि दक्षिण भारतात मदुराई वगैरे परिसरांत धर्मप्रसार केला तेव्हा या धर्मांतरीत लोकांनी आपल्याबरोबर आपल्या जाती, जमाती आणि या जातीजमाजातींशी निगडित असलेल्या प्रथापरंपरा ख्रिस्ती समाजात आणल्या. ख्रिस्ती मिशनरींनी आणि त्यांच्या धर्माधिकाऱ्यांनी हे धकवून घेतले. पोर्तुगिजांची गोव्यात राजवट असल्याने तिथे धर्मांतरानंतर काही प्रमाणात या प्रथापरंपरांना आळा बसला, मात्र पोर्तुगीज राजवट या धर्मांतरीतांच्या मूळ जातीजमाती आणि त्यासंबंधी असलेल्या विविध प्रथा आणि परंपरा समुळपणे नष्ट करु शकली नाही हेसुद्धा तितकेच खरे.

दक्षिण भारतात ख्रिस्ती ब्राह्मणांनी जानवे घालणे, शेंडी राखणे, कपाळावर भस्म चोपडणे¸संन्याशी, गुरू म्हणून भगवी वस्त्रे परिधान करणे हे ख्रिस्ती धर्मतत्त्वांशी विसंगत की सुसंगत आहे याबाबत उहापोह मदुराईत आणि अगदी इटलीमधल्या रोमपर्यत चालला होता. या प्रकरणात असले हे प्रकार नवधर्मांतरीत ख्रिस्ती समाजात रूढ करणाऱ्या इटालियन जेसुईट फादर रॉबर्ट डी नोबिली यांचे धर्मगुरुपदाचे तसेच बाप्तिस्मा करण्याचे अधिकार निलंबित करण्यात आले होते.

मात्र याबाबत दीर्घकाळ चाललेल्या चौकशीनंतर रोमस्थित पोपमहाशयांनी अखेरीस रॉबर्ट डी नोबिली यांचे म्हणणे मान्य केले. अशाप्रकारे आडपडद्याने का होईना जातीव्यवस्थेने ख्रिस्ती समाजात प्रवेश केला आणि यथावकाश तेथे मग मजबूत बस्तान बसवले.

देशाच्या इतर भागांत मध्यगीन काळात आणि अव्वल ब्रिटिश अमदानीच्या काळात ख्रिस्ती धर्माचा प्रसार झाला आणि त्याकाळात हा धर्म खऱ्या अर्थाने राष्ट्रपातळीवरचा आणि इथल्या सर्व - वरच्या, मध्यम स्तरावरच्या आणि खालच्या गणल्या जाणाऱ्या - जातींचा आणि जमातींचा बनला.

ईस्ट इंडिया कंपनीच्या अंमलात असलेल्या मुंबई बंदरात तीन अमेरीकन मिशनरींनी १२ फेब्रुवारी १८१२ रोजी मुंबई बंदरात पाऊल ठेवला. ईस्ट इंडिया कंपनीच्या अंमलात असलेल्या भारतात ख्रिस्ती मिशनरींच्या कार्यावर असलेली बंदी ब्रिटीश संसदेने १८१३ला उठवली. त्यानंतर अमेरिकन आणि स्कॉटिश मिशनरींनी मुंबईत आणि नजिकच्या परिसरांत भारताच्या इतिहासात पहिल्यांदाच आधुनिक पद्धतीच्या शाळा सुरु केल्या आणि भारतात ख्रिस्ती धर्मप्रसाराचे, आधुनिक शिक्षणाचे आणि त्यामुळे विविध क्षेत्रांतील प्रबोधनाचे नवे युग सुरु झाले.

आधुनिक भारतात प्रवेश करणारे आद्य परदेशी मिशनरी असलेल्या गॉर्डन हॉल यांनी आपल्या घरात आश्रय दिलेल्या एका आफ्रिकन मुलाचा -डॅनियलचा - १२ जुलै १८१८ रोजी बाप्तिस्मा केला, आधुनिक काळात ख्रिस्ती मिशनरींनी भारतात केलेला हा पहिला बाप्तिस्मा. मात्र बाप्तिस्मा करणारे आणि स्विकारणारी व्यक्ती दोघेही परदेशी होते.

या काळात ख्रिस्ती धर्मात प्रवेश करणारी पहिली एतद्देशीय व्यक्ती मुसलमान होती हे या अमेरिकन मराठी मिशनचा इतिहास वाचला कि स्पष्ट होते. मोहंमद कादिन किंवा कादेर यार खान या मुळच्या हैदराबादचा असलेल्या वयाने ज्येष्ठ असलेल्या मुस्लीम व्यक्तीचा मुंबईत २५ सप्टेंबर १८१९ रोजी बाप्तिस्मा झाला.

मॅन्युएल अंतोनिओ या रोमन कॅथोलिकाचा १८२५ साली पुन्हा एकदा प्रोटेस्टंट पंथात बाप्तिस्मा देण्यात आला आणि हेसुद्धा `धर्मांतर' असेच गणले गेले. उमाजी गोविंद या चांभार व्यक्तीने १८२७ साली ख्रिस्ती धर्म स्वीकारला.

स्कॉटिश मिशनरींनी कोकणात हर्णै आणि बाणकोट येथे मिशनकार्य म्हणजे शाळा चालवणे आणि धर्मप्रसार करणे सुरु केले. डोनाल्ड मिचेल, जॉन कुपर, जेम्स मिचेल, ए क्रॉफर्ड आणि रॉबर्ट नेस्बिट हे ते स्कॉटिश आद्य मिशनरी.

इथल्या समाजात जात किती खोलवर रोवलेली आहे याचा अनुभव या आद्य मिशनरींना खूप लवकर आला. ही घटना १८२७च्या आसपासची आहे. या मिशनरींच्या मिशनकामाला यश येऊन एका हिंदु व्यक्तीने ख्रिस्ती धर्म स्विकारला होता. त्याचा बाप्तिस्मा झाल्यानंतर काही आठवड्यांनीं या मिशनरींनी प्रभुभोजनाचा म्हणजे येशु ख्रिस्ताच्या `लास्ट सपर’ किंवा शेवटच्या भोजनाच्या स्मरणार्थ केला जाणारा विधी चर्चमध्ये आयोजित केला होता. या विधीसाठी सर्व जण एकत्रित बसले होते.

प्रभुभोजन सुरु होणार तोच नव्यानेच ख्रिस्ती झालेला तो माणूस तटदिशी उभा राहिला, ''नाही, नाही. मी माझी जात इतक्या लवकर सोडणार नाही,'' असे म्हणत त्याने त्या चर्चबाहेर धूम ठोकली.

स्कॉटिश मिशनरी जॉन विल्सन बाणकोटला १८२९ आले तेव्हा बाणकोटचा रामचंद्र पुराणिक हा पुराण सांगणारा ब्राह्मण ख्रिस्ती झाला होता. उच्चवर्णीय ब्राह्मण जातीतल्या मराठी लोकांपैकी ख्रिस्ती झालेला हा पहिला माणूस. जॉन विल्सन यांनी मुंबईत १८३० साली हिंदु धर्म आणि ख्रिस्ती धर्म याबाबत वादविवाद आयोजित केला तेंव्हा ख्रिस्ती धर्माचा गड या रामचंद्र पुराणिकने लढवला होता.

प्रभु समाजातील दाजिबा निळकंठने ५ डिसेंबर १८३० रोजी ख्रिस्ती समाजाची दीक्षा घेतली,. कोकणातील देवाचे गोठणे येथील एक ब्राह्मण बाबाजी रघुनाथ मराठे बाणकोट २० नोव्हेंबर १८३१ रोजी ख्रिस्ती झाला.

ब्राह्मण बाबाजी रघुनाथचा बाप्तिस्मा झाल्यानंतर लगेचच त्याचा एका ब्राह्मण विधवेशी विवाह झाला. लग्नाआधीच ते दोघे एकत्र राहत होते, म्हणजे आताच्या भाषेत `लिव्ह इन रिलेशनशिप’ मध्ये होते.

त्याकाळात समाजातल्या खालच्या गणल्या जातींजमातींमध्ये स्त्रियांना आर्थिक आणि सामाजिकदृष्ट्या अधिक मोकळीक होते असे दिसते. या जातींजमातींमधल्या विधवांना किंवा नवऱ्याने टाकून दिलेल्या स्त्रियांना पुनर्विवाह करण्याची मुभा होती. गाठ मारणे. पाट लावणे किंवा म्होतुर लावणे अशी काही नावे या पुनर्विवाहांना होती. सती ही अत्यंत घृण प्रथासुद्धा केवळ वरच्या जातींत होती.

ब्राह्मण जातीतील विधवा पुनर्विवाहाच्या या घटनेनंतर अनेक वर्षांनी म्हणजे तब्बल पाच दशकांनंतर १८५६ मध्ये पुनर्विवाहाला कायदेशीर मान्यता मिळाली होती.

भारतात उच्चवर्णिय गणल्या जाणाऱ्या ब्राह्मण समाजातील विधवा पुनर्विवाहाची ही बहुधा पहिलीच घटना असावी. महर्षी केशव धोंडो कर्वे यांनी पंडिता रमाबाई यांच्या आश्रमातील गोदू या विधवेशी १८९३ ला पुनर्विवाह केला होता तो तब्बल सहा दशकांनंतर.

बाबाजी रघुनाथ या ब्राह्मणाशी एका ब्राह्मण विधवेने १८३१ साली केलेला हा पुनर्विवाह समाजशास्त्रज्ञांकडून आणि इतर अभ्यासकांकडून दुर्लक्षितच राहिला आहे.

ब्राह्मण विधवेचा हा पुनर्विवाह ज्या दिवशी झाला त्याच दिवशी त्याच चॅपेलमध्ये (प्रार्थनामंदिरात ) आणखी एक मोठी किंवा त्याहून अधिक क्रांतिकारक घटना घडली होती. ती म्हणजे ब्राह्मण बाबाजी रघुनाथला बाप्तिस्मा देण्यात आला त्याच दिवशी महार जातीच्या गोपी या महिलेचेसुद्धा ख्रिस्ती धर्मात स्वागत करण्यात आले. हिंदू धर्मातील दोन विरुद्ध असलेले टोक अशाप्रकारे पहिल्यांदाच ख्रिस्ती बंधुभावात एकत्र आले अशा शब्दात या घटनेचे वर्णन करण्यात आले आहे.

अमेरिकन मराठी मिशनने अहमदनगर शहराच्या वेशीच्या आत सर्वप्रथम बाप्तिस्मा केला तो त्यांच्याकडे डॉ. ग्रॅहॅम यांनी सुपूर्द केलेल्या पुअर हाऊसमधील दृष्टिहीन, मूकबधिर, अपंग आणि अनाथ लोकांचा. कुटुंबियांनी आणि समाजाने टाकून दिलेल्या या अनाथ आणि अपंग व्यक्तींच्या मूळ जातीजमाती काय होत्या हे कळणे अशक्य आहे. या डॉ. ग्रॅहॅम यांनीच अमेरिकन मिशनच्या लोकांचे अहमदनगर शहरात १८३१ साली स्वागत केले होते.

मुंबईत उच्चभ्रु गणल्या जाणाऱ्या पारशी समाजातील काही तरुणांनी ख्रिस्ती धर्म स्विकारला तेव्हा मोठी खळबळ माजली होती, कोर्टकचेऱ्यासुद्धा झाल्या होत्या.

स्कॉटिश मिशनरी जॉन विल्सन यांच्या शाळेत शिकणाऱ्या धनजीभाई नौरोजी आणि होरमसजी पेस्तनजी या दोन पारशी तरुणांनी १८३९च्या अनुक्रमे १ मे आणि ५ मे रोजी पोलीस पहाऱ्यात ख्रिस्ती धर्म स्वीकारला.

या दोन पारशी तरूणांपैकी होरमसजी पुढे ख्रिस्ती धर्मगुरू झाला, स्कॉटलंडमध्ये धर्मशिक्षण पुर्ण केले आणि भारतात दीर्घकाळ मिशनकार्य केले, त्यांनी आपले आत्मचरित्रसुद्धा लिहिले आहे.

मुंबईत परळीचा तरुण देशस्थ ब्राह्मण नारायणशास्त्री शेषाद्री ख्रिस्ती झाला, त्याचा बारा वर्षाचा धाकटा भाऊ श्रीपतशास्त्री यानेसुद्धा स्कॉटिश मिशन हाऊसमध्ये धर्मातरासाठी आश्रय घेतला होता. याप्रकरणी श्रीपतीला डांबून ठेवल्याचा आरोप करणारा हेबीअसं कॉपर्स अर्ज न्यायालयात रेव्हरंड रॉबर्ट नेस्बिट यांच्याविरुद्ध दाखल करण्यात आला होता.

भारताच्या इतिहासात पहिल्यांदाच कायद्याचा अंमल सुरु झाला होता, या कायद्यासमोर न्यायालयात आणले जाणारे सर्व फिर्यादी आणि समान होते. एखाद्या व्यक्तीला बेकायदेशीररित्या डांबून ठेवण्यात आले आहे असा आरोप करणारे कलम असणारे `हेबीअस कॉपर्स' चा खटला या निमित्ताने भारतात पहिल्यांदाच चालवला गेला असणार.

रेव्हरंड नारायणशास्त्री शेषाद्री यांनी ख्रिस्ती मिशनरी म्हणून फार मोठे योगदान दिले.

सोराबजी खारसेटजी लांगराना हा मुंबईतला पारशी तरुणही त्यानंतर लगेचच ख्रिस्ती झाला. फ्रान्सीना सांत्या या निलगिरी प्रदेशातील तोडा आदिवासी जमातीच्या असलेल्या मात्र ब्रिटिश रेजिमेंट अधिकारी सर फ्रान्सिस फोर्ड आणि त्यांची पत्नी कोर्नेलिया यांनी सांभाळलेल्या मुलीशी सोराबजी याचे लग्न झाले. सोराबजी १८७८ ला आपली सरकारी नोकरी सोडून पूर्ण वेळ ख्रिस्ती मिशनरी बनले. त्यांच्या पत्नीने फ्रान्सीना सांत्या यांनी पुण्यात बालवाडी (नंतरची व्हिक्टोरिया स्कुल), इंग्रजी, मराठी, गुजराती आणि उर्दू माध्यमाच्या शाळा सुरु केल्या .

सोराबजी हा पारशी ख्रिस्ती तरुण आणि त्यांची तोडा आदिवासी पत्नी फ्रान्सीना सांत्या यांची आणखी एक महत्त्वाची ओळख म्हणजे भारतातली पहिली महिला वकिल कॉर्नेलिया सोराबजी यांचे हे दोघे पिता आणि माता.

जॉन विल्सन यांचे परमस्नेही असलेल्या व्याकरणकार दादोबा पांडुरंग तर्खडकर यांची मुलगी वेणुबाई हिने वैधव्यानंतर एका ख्रिस्ती कुटुंबाच्या सहवासात राहून शिक्षण घेतले आणि तिने ख्रिस्ती धर्मही स्वीकारला होता.

पंजाबचे राजा रणजितसिंग यांच्या मृत्युनंतर ब्रिटिशांनीं पंजाबचे राज्य खालसा केले. रणजितसिंहांचा पंधरा वर्षांचा मुलगा युवराज दुलिपसिंह दुलिपसिंह ख्रिस्ती होतो आणि काहीं काळानंतर इंग्लंड येथेच स्थायिक होतो. ख्रिस्ती धर्माची दीक्षा घेणारा युवराज दुलिपसिंह हा पहिला सेलिब्रिटी किंवा वलयांकित शीखधर्मीय. भारताच्या पहिल्या आरोग्यमंत्री राजकुमारी अमृत कौर या दुसऱ्या वलयांकित व्यक्ती.

पंजाबमध्ये आणि संपुर्ण भारतात ख्रिस्ती धर्मप्रसार करणाऱ्या मिशनरींमध्ये साधू सुंदरसिंग या मूळच्या शीखधर्मीय असलेल्या गूढवादी किंवा मिस्टिक धर्मगुरुचा समावेश होतो.

अहमदनगरच्या हरिपंत ख्रिस्ती या देशस्थ ब्राह्मण तरुणाचा १३ एप्रिल १८३९ रोजी बाप्तिस्मा झाला.

१८५४ साली हरिपंत रामचंद्र खिस्ती आणि रामकृष्ण विनायक मोडक यांचा धर्मोपदेशक म्हणून दीक्षाविधी झाला. महाराष्ट्रात इतद्देशियांपैकी धर्मोपदेशक म्हणून दीक्षा मिळणारे ते पहिलेच दोन तरुण. येथील मराठी समाजात ख्रिस्ती धर्मप्रसार करणारे इथल्या मातीतील हे पहिले दोन मिशनरी. यापैकी रामकृष्णपंत विनायक मोडक हे अनेक चित्रपटांत कृष्णाच्या भूमिका साकारणारे प्रसिद्ध अभिनेते शाहू मोडक यांचे पणजोबा.

हरिपंत खिस्ती हे इंग्रजीतील `सगुणा' ही आत्मचरित्रात्मक कादंबरी लिहिणाऱ्या आणि खालावलेल्या प्रकृतीमुळे वैद्यकीय शिक्षण अर्ध्यावर सोडावे लागणाऱ्या कृपा सत्यनाथन या महिलेचे वडील. ``सगुणा : अ स्टोरी ऑफ नेटिव्ह ख्रिश्चन लाईफ'' ही कादंबरी १८८७ साली प्रसिद्ध झाली. इंग्रजीत लिखाण करणारी कृपा सत्यनाथन ही पहिली भारतीय स्त्री-कादंबरीकार .

त्याकाळात पुण्यामुंबईत स्कॉटिश आणि अमेरिकन मिशनरींच्या संपर्कात आलेल्या अनेक सुशिक्षित ब्राह्मण व्यक्तींनी ख्रिस्ती धर्म स्विकारला आणि इथल्या उच्चभ्रू समाजात धोक्याची घंटा लावली. यथावकाश योग्य ती पावले उचलून आणि विविध सामाजिक, आध्यात्मिक किंवा धार्मिक मंडळे / समाज स्थापन करुन ख्रिस्ती धर्माचे हे आक्रमण रोखण्यास बऱ्यापैकी यश आले.

त्यानंतर ख्रिस्ती मिशनरींनी आपला लक्ष महाराष्ट्रातील ग्रामीण भागांतील दुर्लक्षित, उपेक्षित, गावच्या वेशीबाहेर हुसकावून लावलेल्या समाजघटकांकडे वळवले. मिशनरींच्या सुदैवाने त्यावेळी तरी या लोकांना मिशनरींनी जवळ करण्याबाबत, त्यांच्या शैक्षणिक, आर्थिक आणि सामाजिक गरज पुरवण्याबाबत समाजातील पुढारलेल्या वर्गांचे काही एक आक्षेप नव्हते.

यानंतर अनेक मातंग आणि महार लोकांनी सामुदायिकरीत्या प्रभूच्या राज्यात प्रवेश केला. शिऊरचा भागोबा काळेखे हा मातंग जातीतला पहिलाच धर्मांतरीत होता. अहमदनगरच्या चर्चमध्ये भागोबाने पहिल्यांदा पाऊल ठेवले त्या क्षणाला त्या देवळात कमालीचे उत्साहाचे औत्सुकाचे वातावरण होते.

भागोबा पूर्वी तमासगीर होते. या पार्श्वभूमीमुळे त्यांनी मराठीत अनेक ख्रिस्ती गायने लिहिली. ख्रिस्ती धर्मातील अस्सल मराठी गायनांची रचना करण्याचा मान अशाप्रकारे भागोबा यांच्याकडे जातो.

या ख्रिस्ती धर्मात ब्राह्मण, धनगर, तेली, साळी, मराठा, मातंग, महार, कायस्थ प्रभू, आणि इतर कैक जातीजमातींचे लोक गुण्यागोविंदांचे नांदू लागले. `यमुनापर्यटन' ही मराठी भाषेतील पहिली कादंबरी लिहिणारे बाबा पद्मनजी हे कासार जातीचे. पंडिता रमाबाई, निळकंठशास्त्री नेहेम्या गोरे, मराठी पंचकविंमध्ये समावेश असणाऱे रेव्हरंड नारायण वामन टिळक वगैरे नामवंत मंडळी चित्पावन ब्राह्मण होती.. पुण्यात भर पेठवस्तीत म्हणजे कसबा पेठेत ब्रदर देशपांडे मेमोरियल चर्च आहे हे पहिल्यांदा ऐकले तेव्हा मलाही असाच धक्का बसला होता.

अशाप्रकारे ख्रिस्ती समाजात स्वतःला सारस्वत ब्राह्मण म्हणवून घेणारे लोक आहेत त्याचप्रमाणे रेड्डी ख्रिस्ती आहेत, अय्यंगार, नायर, नंबुद्रीपाद ख्रिस्ती आहेत आणि पुर्णो संगमा यांच्या कुटुंबासारखे ईशान्य भारतातील आदिवासीसुद्धा ख्रिस्ती आहेत.

कॅथोलिक बिशप्स कॉन्फरन्स ऑफ इंडिया या कॅथोलिक चर्चच्या धर्माधिकाऱ्यांच्या संघटनेची पुण्यात १९९२ साली बैठक झाली तेव्हा इंडियन एक्सप्रेसमध्ये आणि `लोकसत्ता’त पुर्ण पानभर जाहिरातीत देशातील या सर्व बिशपांचे नावांसहीत फोटो छापण्यात आले होते तेव्हा जातीजमाती दर्शवणाऱ्या नावांची ही यादी वाचून मला स्वतःला धक्काच बसला होता.

ईशान्य भारतातल्या काही राज्यांत ख्रिस्ती समाज बहुसंख्य आहेत आणि जवळजवळ सर्वच लोक आदिवासी आहेत आणि त्यांना अनुसूचित जमातींना लागू असणाऱ्या सर्व सुविधा आणि आरक्षण लागू आहेत.

विविध जतिजमातीतील लोकांनी आपल्या आधीच्या चालीरीती म्हणजे लग्नकार्य आणि इतर सांस्कृतिक प्रथापरंपरा ख्रिस्ती समाजातही आणल्या आहेत. उदाहरणार्थ लग्नकार्य म्हणजे रोटीबेटी व्यवहार, खाद्यसंस्कृती वगैरेवगैरे.

पूर्वाश्रमीच्या अस्पृश्य समाजातल्या ख्रिस्ती लोकांना अनुसूचित जातीच्या सवलती नसल्या तरी भारतातल्या आणि महाराष्ट्रातल्या विशेषतः खानदेश, पालघर जिल्हा वगैरे भागांतल्या सर्व आदिवासी ख्रिस्ती लोकांना अनुसूचित जमातीच्या सर्व सुविधा आणि आरक्षण लागू आहेत.

अशाप्रकारे उच्च वर्णीय ब्राह्मण, विविध तथाकथित ओबीसी समाजातील तसेच दलीत आणि आदिवासी अशा विविध जाती आणि जमातींचा देशातील आणि राज्यातील ख्रिस्ती समाजात समावेश होतो.

ख्रिस्ती समाजात अशाप्रकारे विविध जाती जमाती अगदी खुल्या स्वरूपात अस्तित्वात असल्या तरीसुद्धा ख्रिस्ती धर्मात मात्र जातीभेद नाही असे ठोसपणे म्हणता येते.

हे नंतर अगदी सविस्तरपणे पुढल्या पोस्टमध्ये…

Jesuits express concern over missing priest

Jesuits express concern over missing priest
- CAMIL PARKHE Thursday, 12 June 2014 - 11:07 PM IST
Tags: Jesuits, Jesuit Refugee Service, priest, Fr Alexis Prem Kumar, abduct, crime, Pune, Camil Parkhe

PUNE: Jesuits in the city have expressed concern over the fate of the fellow priest from Madurai province who has been abducted by some people while working for the Jesuit Refugee Service (JRS) in Afghanistan.

Fr Alexis Prem Kumar (47), Director of the JRS in Afghanistan, was abducted by unidentified persons near Herat on June 2.

Fr Kumar was visiting a school for refugee Afghan children when the abductors took him along with them.

There was no violence at the time of the kidnapping, sources said.

No group has claimed responsibility for the abduction yet.

Jesuit priests have been working in several areas of Afghanistan and generally keep a low profile.

Fr Stan Fernandes, a former head of the Pune Jesuit province, had also been working in Afghanistan for the past few years.

Jesuit Refugee Service works among people who are denied human rights, or are driven out of their homeland and persecuted.

Its work consists of rehabilitation, education and counselling.

NO NEWS AFTER 10 DAYS

In an email, Fr Joy Karayampuram, spokesperson for the Jesuit Refugee Service, has said, "This is the 10th day after the abduction of the humanitarian aid worker Fr Alexis Prem Kumar. We have no information about the whereabouts of Fr. Alexis till today. We are all praying for his safe return."

 

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Tamil poet Joseph Beschi alias Virmamunivar

 Tamil poet Joseph Beschi alias Virmamunivar
Fr. Joseph Beschi alias Virmamunivar is well known for composing classical literature in Tamil language in the eighteenth century, and also as a researcher and language scholar who wrote grammar and dictionaries of Tamil language. He introduced westerners to the rich treasures of this south Indian language. This priest who was born in Italy came to India as a missionary and made Tamil Nadu as his home. There he learnt the local Tamil language and contributed to enrich this language. He occupies a place of honour in the history of the ancient Tamil language.
Beschi was born on November 8, 1680 at Castigline delle Stiviere in Mantua district of Venice province in Italy. Although baptised as Constantius Joseph Beschi, in India he is better known by his Tamil title 'Virmamunivar'. He joined the Society of Jesus in 1698 and was ordained a priest in 1709. A year later, he left his motherland to work as a missionary in India.
Fr. Beschi joined the Jesuit Madurai mission in 1711. A century before his arrival there, Jesuit priests like Robert De Nobili had propagated Christianity in some parts of south India.
St. Thomas, an apostle of Jesus Christ, had preached Christianity in Kerala 2,000 years ago. In the later centuries, however, Christianity remained confined to Kerala until the arrival of the European missionaries in the medieval period. It was due to hard work of De Nobili, a great Sanskrit scholar, and his companions that Christianity could take roots in Madurai and other parts of south India. Fr Beschi followed footsteps of his Jesuit predecessors. Like De Nobili, Joseph Beschi too has found a place of honour in the history of Tamil literature.
Fr. Beschi served as a missionary at Gurukalpatti, Madurai, Aiyampet, Vadugherpet and other places of Madurai diocese. But for most of the time of his life, he stayed at Elacurichi. His service to the literature in Tamil and other languages took place here only. This veteran scholar and poet passed away at Manapar in Kerala at the age of 67, on February 4, 1747.
Besides being a renowned expert of Tamil language, Fr. Beschi was also a veteran linguist. His biographer wrote that he knew languages like Tamil, Malayalam, Sanskrit, Telugu, English, French, Portuguese, Italian, Latin, Persian and Hindi. Available documents prove that he at least knew Italian, Portuguese, Latin, Tamil and French very well.
Beschi's Jesuit superior Fr Bourzes has written about Beschi's knowledge of Tamil and his mastery over the language in his annual report of 1715. Fr. Bourzes writes:
"Availing himself of the leisure enforced upon him, which he did not expect, Father Beschi gave himself to the study of Tamil poetry: for noting in the country is esteemed more than this study. In the space of a few months he made more progress in it than any other missionary since the foundation of the Mission. The result is that he writes Tamil verses most elegantly, and what is more difficult, he has read the ancient poets with much profit. From these poets he will one day be able to make a choice of beautiful maxims for the formation of good manners, and excellent arguments in support of the faith with these people who trust implicitly only their poets. But the enterprise is very arduous."
Among the work of literature by Fr. Beschi alias Virmamunivar, the poetry titled 'Tembavani' is considered to be his magnum opus. Fr. Beschi composed it in 1727 A.D. As per the tradition that prevailed then, Fr. Beschi, in his poetry, used the words from classical literature. Many of these words are no longer in use. Therefore today, it is not easy to understand the meaning of the words he had used in this classical literary work.
S. Rajamanickam in the book. "The Poem Tembavani by Joseph Beschi", has described Beschi as 'scholar, poet and missionary'. His contribution not only enriched Tamil literature but also helped to develop the language. Fr. Beschi has left behind a legacy of grammar books, short stories, and treaties on astronomy and Tamil alphabetical reforms. As a foreigner settled in Tamil Nadu, his efforts to develop the local language are definitely admirable.
Fr. Baschi explained preaching of Christianity and philosophy in the three-volume epic 'Tembavani' that has been composed with complete native background. Fr. Beschi presented this epic to the Tamil Sangha in Madurai. Language scholars of the Tamil Sangha appreciated this Tamil epic and honoured Fr. Beschi with the title 'Virmamunivar'. Fr. Beschi occupies an eternal place in the history of Tamil language with the name 'Virmamunivar'.
Virmamunivar's 'Tembavani' (the sweet or unfading garland) is one of the classical masterpieces in Tamil language. The poetry containing 14,460 lines has been deep rooted in the culture of Tamil soil. Though composed by an European missionary, the poetry is deeply rooted in Tamil culture.
The epic is based on the holy family, St. Joseph, Mother Mary and Jesus. The poet has given Indian names to many Biblical characters or has Tamilised these names. The animals, plants, trees and flowers described in the poetry are also totally Indian. There is a great similarity between Virmamunivar's poetry 'Tembavani' and Fr. Thomas Stephen's Marathi epic 'Kristapuran' composed in the 17th century. The Jesuit priest Stephens, a British missionary working in Goa, had composed the Marathi epic completely based on native background.
We come to know about Fr. Beschi's deep study of many concepts of Hindu religion from the use of metaphors in his 'Tembavani'. For example, 'Naam-jap' a special word from Hindu prayer, or sentences like, 'Hands of Jesus Christ are tulsi- the holy shrub, or - Christ rules with a Chakra (wheel) in his hand which reminds one of the Sudarshan chakra of Vishnu, etc. Every Hindu deity has a 'Vahana'   (a vehicle) and this great poet has even mounted Christ on the 'Vahana' of clouds.
Fr. Beschi has got the recognition as the senior grammar composer in Tamil. He persuaded his companion missionaries to learn Tamil that had rich literary heritage. He therefore wrote Tamil grammar and dictionaries in foreign languages.   He is credited with composing four Tamil grammars. One was a traditional type of grammar in Tamil; the second was grammar of spoken Tamil language written in Latin for the benefit of the foreign missionaries, the third grammar of high or literary Tamil was also for the use of the foreign missionaries. The fourth was a summary of the first traditional Tamil grammar written in Latin.
Amongst Indian languages, Tamil is one of the most ancient languages. Although, it has the classical literary heritage, western world were not exposed to the literary treasures of this language. Beschi introduced these rich literary treasures to western world for the first time when he translated classical Tamil epic 'Thirukkural' into Latin.
It is said that Fr. Beschi was an excellent diplomat. During the period when local rulers looked down missionaries upon with suspicion, Fr. Beschi gained favour from a local ruler Chanda Sahib. The popular story says that
Chanda Sahib had even appointed Fr Beschi as his Divan or prime minister and that the ruler had gifted him several villages. According to this legend, Fr. Beschi clothed in costly garments used to be carried in a palanquin. S. Rajamaickam has however dismissed these legends as 'unlikely' as there is no historical evidence to prove it.
There is however a stone inscription available which says that the ruler of Ariyalur had made a permanent donation of several hundreds of acres of land to the church of Elacurichi on August 4, 1734. It was indeed very surprising that a foreigner missionary got royal patronage from local ruler belonging to a different religion. This also proves Fr Beschi's influence in that area.
Among his companions, Fr. Beschi was called as 'Father of flowers' as he was very fond of flowers. He had developed a flower garden and had even asked for some flower seeds from Europe. But by the time these seeds reached him, they were stale.
A statue of this great linguist, scholar and missionary has been erected at the famous Marina Beach in Chennai in Tamil Nadu in recognition of his literary contribution in Tamil language.  Fr. Beschi's name is mentioned along with other senior oriental and medieval Tamil linguists, in the global Tamil literary conventions. When a chair for Christianity was established in Madurai University, it was but natural to name it after Fr. Joseph Beschi.
Beschi's collection of humorous short stories entitled Paramartha Kuruvin Kathaikal, have been translated into many Indian and European languages. These stories with some adaptations were serialised on Tamil Nadu Doordarshan a few years back.  

References: -

1.  'A Grammar of the Common Dialect of Tamil Language' by Constantius Joseph Beschi, Tanjore Sarasvati Mahal series no. 133, The Tanjore Maharaja Serfoji's Sarasvati Mahal Library, Thanjavur, 1971, Translated from the original Latin by George William Mahon.
The poem 'Tembavani' by Joseph Beschi, (S.J.) A Tamil epic on St. Joseph, Centre de Recherche et de Documentation, Montr'eal, 1994.

2. 'Jesuits in India : In Historical Perspective' Edited by Teotonio R de Souza and Charles J. Borges, Instituto Cultural de Macau, Xavier Centre of Historical Research, Goa (1992)

3. 'Beschi and inculturation' by V. M. Gnanapragasam, 'Jesuits presence in Indian History' - Edited by Anand Amaladoss (S.J), Commemorative volume on the occasion of the 150th anniversary of the new Madurai Mission 1838 - 1988, Published by X Dias de Rio   ( S.J), Gujarat Sahitya Prakash, P.B. No. 70, Anand - 388 001.

4. Fr. Joseph Beschi - 'The Italian who wrote masterpieces in Tamil' , Saints and Sages in India, by Fr. R. S. Lesser, Gujarat Sahitya Prakash, P.B. No 70, Anand - 388 001.

5. 'Marathi Vishwakosh'  (Marathi Encyclopaedia)   (Volume 11) Chief Editor - Tarkateertha Laxmanshastri Joshi, Maharashtra Rajya Marathi Vishwakosh Nirmiti Mandal, Mumbai (1982)

The Church’s stance on untouchability, casteism

‘Dalit Christians: Right to Reservations’

By Camil parkhe

Publisher: Indian Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, New Delhi


4. The Church’s stance on untouchability, casteism


Even though untouchability and casteism had been practiced for several centuries among the Christian communities in south India, the Church hierarchy avoided either dissuading the people from following these practices or taking action against those perpetuating these social evils. The British rulers in India had taken a lesson from the war of independence of 1857 and to continue their rule decided not to interfere in the religious matters of India. Even before the arrival of the British in India, Robert De Nobili and other European missionaries had adopted a similar view in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries in Madurai and Tiruchirapally.

The European missionaries did not believe in the practice of untouchability. However they realised that the converts faced the risk of ex-communication from their own community if they gave up practices of casteism and untouchability after embracing Christianity. So the missionaries decided to go slow in the matter. As a result, inhuman practices like untouchability could take roots in the south Indian Christian communities and continued to flourish for many years even after Independence.

Missionaries connive at casteism, untouchability

In Madurai and other areas of southern India, during Robert De Nobili’s time, many Brahmins embraced Christianity. However, the high caste Hindus coming into Christianity meant closing the doors of Christianity to the low caste and untouchable communities. The missionaries faced a difficult dilemma- whether to choose high castes or low castes for their missionary work. If they selected one caste, it was certain that the other would turn its back on them. The missionaries did not want to lose either of the two. Therefore depending on the possibilities at different places at different times, they baptised people from both the communities and bought them to Christ.

The missionaries permitted the converts to continue observing social customs like untouchability, casteism, strictly vegetarian diet in case of the Brahmins and non-vegetarianism of the lower castes, etc. The missionaries presumed that having learnt the tenets of Christianity, over a period of time the converts would give up untouchability and casteism. This proved wrong.

The native high caste missionaries may have found nothing amiss in all this. As a result, the walls of casteism continued to separate the Indian Christians from each other for nearly four centuries after they gave up Hinduism. Till the twentieth century, the erstwhile high caste Christians continued to be vegetarians and no inter-caste marriages took place within the Christian community.

Cyril Bruce Firth says- “On the whole, the Roman Catholic Church did not directly address the problem of casteism. It was assumed that casteism is an inevitable social aspect of life in India, therefore it was permitted to have social strata as per caste in the Christian community. Still, due to education, casteism was curtailed. It condemned the extreme casteism in the form of untouchability and hoped that unity will slowly grow in the society.”1

‘Dalit is dignified’

The dalit converts to Christianity were initially referred to by the Catholic Church. as ‘Christians of Scheduled Caste Origin (CSCO). This term was frequently used since the First National Convention of Christian leaders held in Bangalore in 1978. After the 1970s and in the 1980s, the term ‘dalit Christians’ was accepted in the Christian circles of south India. Like the famous phrase- ‘black is beautiful’, the phrase, ’dalit is dignified’ found acceptance with the Dalit Christian Liberation Movement which began to take strong roots in south India after the mid 1980s.



The term ‘dalit Christian’ had led to greater awareness among the dalit Protestant Christians as early as 1970s. The national conference of All India Catholic Union (AICU) held in 1989 passed a resolution formalising the use of ‘dalit Christians’ in reference to the Scheduled Caste Christians. This very conference also dedicated the 1990s as the ‘decade of the dalit Christians’.2

The issue of discrimination towards the dalits in churches and across the Christian community was discussed for the first time at the meeting of the Catholic Bishops’ Conference of India (CBCI) held at Bangalore in 1969.3 Thereafter, the CBCI has made substantial efforts to remove casteism within the Christian community and to secure reservations and other concessions for the dalit Christians.

The general body meeting of the Catholic Bishops’ Conference of India held in Goa in 1986 appointed a commission under the chairmanship of Bishop Cheriankunnel to take up the cause of Scheduled Castes, Tribes and Backward Classes. 3



References:

1.Firth, Cyril Bruce ‘Hindi Khristi Mandalicha Itihas’, translator- Ratnakar Hari Kelkar, (Page 301).

2.L. Stanislaus, ‘The Liberative Mission of the Church among Dalit Christians’, (Page 44).

3.As above, page 117

4.as above, page 117

Jesuit Robert De Nobili -Missionary

Book on Contribution of Christian Missionaries in India

‘Contribution of Christian Missionaries in India’
Written by Camil Parkhe
Published by Gujarat Sahitya Prakash,
Post Box No 70, Anand, 388 001
Gujarat, India

Email: booksgsp@gmail.com

First Published in 2007

ISBN 978 81 8937 36 2





Chapter 4.  Robert De Nobili – Father of incultaration in India


Christianity came to India within a few years of after Jesus Christ preached his gospel of love and peace in Israel. That was about 2000 years ago. St Thomas, one of the 12 apostles of the Christ, is credited with bringing Christianity to Kerala. A section of the Christian community in Kerala believes that they inherited their religion from St Thomas himself. Hence, Christianity in India has a tradition stretching 2000 years.

The European Christians missionaries who arrived on the Indian coast in the medieval period started propagating Christianity afresh. The Portuguese who gained political control over Goa started imposing their own culture on the Christians here. They treated the local customs and traditions with contempt. At that time a European missionary exhibited great courage to oppose this trend.  He invited the rage of his colleagues and religious superiors when he defended the local culture, life style and also adapted the local languages. He propounded that Christianity could be practised even after mingling completely with the culture of the country. This Christian priest convinced others that adapting the local culture without comprising the tenets of Christianity was indeed possible. The name of this great visionary missionary was Fr Robert De Nobili.

Fr Robert De Nobili originally hailed from Italy. He was born in a noble family of Rome in 1577. He arrived in Goa in 1605 as a member of the Society of Jesus, an association of the Catholic priests founded by St Ignatius of Loyola. The members of this religious body are known as the Jesuits. Young Robert had chosen India as the land for his missionary work. He completed his theology training at St. Paul's College in Goa and reached Madurai in Tamil Nadu in 1606. He was to spend a major part of his life in this historic city. 

After settling in Madurai, De Nobili started studying Tamil, the local language. He also started learning more about the local customs, traditions and beliefs. Soon, this priest realised that the local people used to refer all Europeans as firangis. Since Fr Nobili was a European, he too was referred to as a ‘firangi’. After spending some days in Madurai, he further realised that the word ‘firangi’ was not used with respect for a person, it had derogatory connotation. He also found out the reasons behind this. For the local orthodox populace, the lifestyle and dietary habits of all the Europeans was most shocking. The locals knew that all the Europeans were non-vegetarians and did not adhere to the basic rules of casteism and untouchability. It was not surprising that the locals started harbouring a feeling hatred for the Europeans who consumed flesh and had no qualms about maintaining normal relations even with the untouchables!

The untouchables were the members of the lowest social castes and consumed flesh and lived in ghettos far away from the colonies of the higher castes. The high caste and orthodox people, therefore, could not even think of having normal relationship with these Europeans, all of whom were referred to as firangis. Even those persons who maintained contacts with these firangis faced the risk of excommunication from their respective communities.

De Nobili had traveled thousands of miles from Rome in Europe to preach the gospel in India and to his horror, now he realised that in the eyes of the local people, he was a firangi.  It would be impossible for him to have any kind of contact or dialogue with anyone from the high caste community as long as they thought of him, as a firangi, and therefore kept him at a bay. Before De Nobili, other European priests too had reached Madurai and nearby places but their propagation of Christianity had remained confined only to the untouchable communities. Now Fr Robert De Nobili understood the reason for the same. He realised that to get blended with the local community, one had to mingle with the local culture.


Instead of bringing about changes in the customs and traditions of the locals, Robert De Nobili preferred changing his own lifestyle. The first thing he did was to give up consumption of flesh. As per the prevalent tradition among the Christian priests, Robert De Nobili used to wear a black cassock. He started using saffron coloured clothes and wooden sandals like Hindu hermits. He tonsured his head and started applying sandalwood paste on his forehead. He started moving about with a wooden staff in his right hand and a small kamandalu (water bowl) in his left hand. In the Indian society, only hermits used to wear such a costume.  It was for the first time in the 1,500 year-old history of Christianity that a missionary had accepted such type of costume. It was a revolutionary change in the history of the Church.

To bring about this change and make it acceptable to his religious colleagues and superiors, De Nobili had to face a long drawn battle with his fellow Jesuits and the hierarchy in the Catholic Church. De Nobili using the Hindu hermit’s costume and life style was just not acceptable to some of his colleagues and religious superiors. Some of them even argued that De Nobili's behaviour was against the basic tenets of Christianity.

But Fr. De Nobili justified his stand by citing a few references of arguments that had taken place during the early years of Christianity. Christianity has originated from the Jewish religion. Jesus Christ himself was a Jew and all his 12 apostles also were Jews. Thereafter, some non-Jews too started following Christianity and this led to a long debate on whether the gentiles, the non-Jews, should adopt Jewish traditions to embrace Christianity.

Circumcision is an important custom in Jew community. Some of the Christians insisted that every person aspiring to follow Christ, to be a Christian, must follow this Jewish custom.  But St. Paul said that acceptance of all Jewish social and religious customs need not be made mandatory to be a Christian. It was not at all necessary for people to give up their social, cultural moorings in order to be Christians.

We come across many such examples in the 2000-year-old history of Christianity. Having this background of theological and philosophical arguments to defend his stance, Fr. De Nobili maintained that following local traditions of India was not against Christianity.

Soon De Nobili became well versed in Tamil and Sanskrit. He ceased to be a firangi in the eyes of the locals when he adorned the costume of a hermit and gave up non-vegetarian food.  This foreign seer was slowly accepted by the locals as their ‘aiyar’ or ‘guru ’. The doors of this country had remained firmly closed for several years to the European missionaries who had come before De Nobili. One of the main reasons behind this was these Europeans' pride in their own culture and contempt for the local culture. De Nobili understood this very well. Therefore, he preferred to blend with the local traditions before preaching Christianity among the local populace. Due to his laborious work, for the first time in the medieval period the gates of India were opened for Christianity.

While learning the local languages, De Nobili also started studying the Vedas, the holy scriptures of the local people, in order to understand the basic tenets of Hinduism. Although, the Vedas were composed thousands of years ago, no westerner before him had ever studied them!  De Nobili was thus the first person from the western world to study Indian classics after learning Sanskrit.

De Nobili did not stop at changing his attire and life style alone. He was of the opinion that the locals who embraced Christianity need not give up their social and cultural traditions even after conversion. The Portuguese, who were ruling Goa on the west coast, had tried to force western culture on the local neo-Christians. De Nobili strongly opposed the imposition of western culture on the neo-Christians in southern India. He conveyed his opinion even to the Holy See in Rome. Some years later, even the Catholic Church allowed the neo-Christians in Madurai and neighbouring areas to apply sandalwood paste on their forehead and wearing a sacred thread across the neck as per old customs.

Fr. Robert De Nobili preached Christianity mainly among the Brahmins and other high caste people. In those days, any local persons embracing Christianity were immediately identified as firangi and excommunicated by society. The Brahmins enjoyed leadership status in religious, social and other matters and none dare go against them. So Robert De Nobili concluded that conversion of these high caste persons to Christianity would help percolate Christianity in all other castes.

Jesus Christ preached his gospel to the rich and the poor, the ostracised and the influential alike. And so his followers are also expected to preach the Good News to all, irrespective of their caste, religion, race or social ranks. However, some scholars have accused De Nobili of favouring the high caste Brahmins in his religious mission. Why was he inclined towards them more than the poor and untouchable classes?

In those days, the way to untouchables and low caste people was through high caste Brahmins only. De Nobili felt that the low caste and untouchable people too would embrace Christianity if the Brahmins took the lead in this regard as the high caste Brahmins were leaders in almost all fields. The low caste and the ostracised sections of the society would not dare unless and until the high caste people embraced this religion.

Acceptance of this firangi religion clearly meant inviting the wrath of the influential and getting excommunicated from the society. Robert De Nobili successfully launched an incultaration movement within the Church, assimilating Indian culture in Christian living and thus wiped out the stamp of firangi given to Christianity. Christianity became a part of the culture in south India and the local culture was reflected in Christian prayers and the life style of Christians there.
Fr Robert De Nobili is credited with introduction of the inculturation process among the Indian Christians in the seventeenth century. He was centuries ahead of the time in this regard as the Church officially encouraged this process only after the Vatican Council II, which took place in the twentieth century. Unfortunately, this principle of inculturation was ignored by the other Christian priests who succeeded De Nobili.

Fr. De Nobili felt that the spiritual leaders of the Indian Christian community should come from within their own community and the candidates for priesthood should be specially trained as per the Indian spiritual traditions. With this goal in mind, he tried in 1610 A. D. to establish a Sanskrit medium seminary to teach Christian Philosophy. The seminary was to conduct a five-year course in theology. Robert De Nobili had even prepared an appropriate Sanskrit terminology for the seminary. But due to some problems, the seminary was not established. Had De Nobili succeeded in this endeavour, the first Christian seminary in the world having Sanskrit medium would have come into existence.

St. Francis Xavier and other missionaries arrived in India before De Nobili. It must have been difficult for them to preach Christianity among the high caste, wealthy Brahmins who cherished pride in their religion. Nonetheless, De Nobili concentrated on preaching Christianity among the Brahmins. He changed his attire, became pure vegetarian to earn the respect of the local populace as he wanted to remove the stigma associated with being a firangi. Not only that, he also discontinued having meals with his own firangi religious colleague priests.  Once, when he went on a visit to meet his religious superiors in Madurai, he took his own Brahmin cook along so that he could avoid having non-vegetarian food or any other food cooked by the firangis.

In his attempt to open the doors of Christianity to the high caste Brahmins, De Nobili is often accused of meting out injustice to the untouchable community. It is indeed a fact that this missionary who preached Christianity that cared for the neglected, offered the untouchables the back seats in his church. However, considering the social conditions prevalent at that time, even allowing the untouchables to enter the church was a great reform initiated by De Nobili. One should remember that in Maharashtra and in many other parts of the country, the untouchables had to launch long struggles to gain entry into temples. This was as late as the twentieth century. Besides, many Catholic and Protestant churches in southern India with domination of high caste people did not permit entry to untouchable Christians until the last few decades. Under these circumstances, De Nobili should not be condemned for treating his high caste and untouchable Christian followers differently.

De Nobili also insisted that, in India, Sanskrit should be used in Christian liturgy and prayers. As Hindus conducted their religious ceremonies only in Sanskrit, the Christians all over the world for several centuries conducted their prayers and liturgy only in Latin. It was a taboo to use the language of the common people to converse with God! De Nobili tried very hard to introduce the use of Sanskrit in Christian prayers. I remember prayers and liturgy being conducted even in rural parts of Maharashtra only in Latin as late as three decades ago. It was in late 1960s that Catholic churches all over the world started conducting prayers, masses and other religious ceremonies in local languages consequent to the second Vatican Council.

It is said this Vatican Council II, convened by Pope John XVIII and later officiated by his successor Pope Paul VI, introduced liberalism in the Catholic Church. This council attended by bishops and Church theologians from all over the world introduced the mass liturgy and prayers in local languages all over the world. De Nobili should be credited with making the pioneering efforts for encouraging the use of a local language, Sanskrit, in Indian church as early as the 17th century. He was indeed a visionary missionary. Unfortunately, his successor missionaries did not pursue his mission of inculturation within the Indian Church. The face of the Indian Church would have been different had the priests who came after De Nobili continued with his religious liberalism and incultaration process.

Fr. De Nobili faced several difficulties while carrying out his missionary work. Some of his own religious colleagues accused him of restricting his apostolic mission to high class Brahmins and introducing racism and casteism in Christianity. Some of the Catholic priests also argued that allowing the local Christians to use a sacred thread around neck, sandalwood paste on forehead and a tuft of hair on head was against the principles of Christianity. Many a time, his religious superiors had to even conduct probes to find out whether De Nobili was conducting himself against the tenets of Christianity.

As a result of a long tirade launched by some orthodox priests against De Nobili, between 1612 A D and 1623 A D, the Holy See banned De Nobili from propagating Christianity among the Brahmins. Thereafter for many years, a debate  went on whether the converted Brahmin Christians should be allowed to continue their practice of keeping the sacred thread around their necks, sandalwood paste on their foreheads and tuft of hair. At the end of 1623 A. D., Pope Gregory XV issued a verdict that the acts and beliefs of Fr Robert De Nobili were not against the Christian faith. Thus almost after a decade, Fr Nobili’s views were endorsed by the Church and his priestly right to baptise people was restored once again.

De Nobili had come to India with the sole mission of preaching Christianity among the local populace. However his noble efforts to offer an Indian base to the practice of Christianity in this country were not immediately appreciated by his colleagues and superiors. Instead, he was misunderstood and doubts were also raised about his intentions. One cannot imagine the emotional turmoil De Nobili faced when he was banned from preaching Christianity and baptising people for over a decade. One of the three vows taken by him as a Jesuit was to be obedient to his religious superiors and he observed this vow totally.

It is remarkable that even after being banned from carrying out the apostolic work among the Brahmins, De Nobili continued his other activities as a missionary for 13 long years. But he sought justice from the Church hierarchy against the injustice meted out to him. Luckily for him, the Pope later issued another decree, which ruled that De Nobili’s missionary conduct, his views or the process of inculturation launched by him were not against the Christian faith. De Nobili was at last absolved of the crimes he had never committed.

Although the Church had now lifted the ban and allowed him to continue his apostolic work among the Brahmins, De Nobili thereafter shifted his focus to the lower strata of the society. He had adapted the lifestyle of the Brahmins to win over them. But it would be unfair to say that De Nobili had also believed in or practiced casteism and chaturvarna system.  

In 1640, Fr. Robert De Nobili got unexpected support from a 27-year-old priest, Balthazar De Costa, who had come from Portugal. This disciple of De Nobili wore saffron robes and earrings like his guru and preached Christianity among the local masses. De Nobili was content that his style of missionary work now had the sanction of the Holy See. He no longer needed to fight back the opposition of his own colleagues or superiors.  He must have experienced great satisfaction to see that the new missionary paths carved out by him were now well acceptable. 

The credit for composing prose in Tamil language for the first time goes to Fr. Robert De Nobili.  De Nobili wrote a lot in three Indian languages, Tamil, Telugu and Sanskrit as well as three European languages, Italian, Portuguese and Latin. In 1656, one priest mentioned in his letter that the Indian scholars used to get astonished by De Nobili’s mastery over so many languages.  Some of his literary works are still available for scholars to study and appreciate De Nobili's intellect. These books are considered as important treasures of Tamil language.

After he turned 68, his Jesuit superiors sent Fr De Nobili to Jaffna in Shri Lanka so that he could rest. He had become frail due to old age. His eyesight had become very weak. But De Nobili did not wish to leave Madurai. He wanted to continue living at the place where he had worked since his youth. But he obeyed his Jesuit superiors and shifted his residence to Jaffna. Two years later, he was allowed to return to India, his  'home' land.  He spent the last eight years of his life in the city of Mylapore, an important pilgrim centre for Christians.

Mylapore is believed to be the place where St. Thomas was martyred. St Thomas who arrived at the south Indian coast in 52 A. D. had baptised many local people. It is indeed a coincidence that 16 centuries after Saint Thomas, Fr Robert De Nobili who propagated Christianity on a large scale in south India, found a final resting place in Mylapore.

Until he breathed his last, Fr De Nobili used to wear saffron cassock. Towards the end of his life, he had also started fasting. Though his eyesight had become weak, he continued improvising his books with the help of his disciples. This great missionary breathed his last on January 16, 1656, at the age of seventy-nine.

References: -

1. ‘A Pearl to India-The Life of Roberto de Nobili’-Vincent Cronin, Published by-Rupert Hart- Davis, Soho Square, London, 1959.

2. ‘The Christian Community and the National Mainstream’-Louis D’Silva, Printed by Dr. M.E. Cherian, Spicer College Press, Ganesh Khind, Pune-411 007.

3. ‘The Unquenchable Quest for scholarship- Interview of De Nobili Scholar Fr. Rajamanickam’ (S.J.) Published in a periodical ‘Jivan’ ‘Jesuits of India: Views and News’ (April 2000), Published by the Jesuits conference of South Asia 225, Jor Bagh, New Delhi, 110 003

4. ‘Dnyanayogi : Robert De Nobilinche Jeevan Charitra’ (Marathi) By- Fr. Bertie Rozario (S.J.) Publisher- Fr. Namdeo Salve ( S. J.) Marg Prakashan, De Nobili College, Pune, 411 014 (1969)


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