‘Dalit Christians: Right to Reservations’ By Camil Parkhe
Published by Indian Society for Promotion of Christian Knowledge, New Delhi
3. Untouchability, casteism among Christians in Maharashtra
In Maharashtra, untouchability and casteism are not observed on a large scale among the Christians. The main reason being that the majority of the converted are from erstwhile untouchable castes. Thus there is no untouchability as seen in southern India. However this has no relation to rapid urbanisation and modernisation in the State. In Maharashtra, majority of the converted Christians came from the untouchable Mahar caste. In some parts of Marathwada region, people belonging to the Mang community, another erstwhile untouchable caste, were also converted.
Although high caste persons like Neelkanthashastri `Nehemya’ Gore, Pandita Ramabai Saraswati, Rev, Narayan Waman Tilak, Laxmibai Tilak and others became Protestant Christians, it is rather strange that not a single high caste person was attracted to the Catholic sect, which is in majority among the Christians the world over. Of course, there are some historical reasons for the same. In nineteenth century Maharashtra as Western culture stepped in and Christian philosophy began influencing great reformists like Mahatma Phule, and Prarthana Samajist R G Bhandarkar, the work of Catholic priests had not even started in the State except in Mumbai and Vasai.
`In his book ‘ Khristi Dharma’, G. V. Ketkar, noted scholar and the former editor of Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak’s Marathi daily Kesari, has stated,” Indian Christians are part of our race, language and blood. India is as much their nation as is ours. Excommunicating them after conversion to Christianity is a dangerous custom for Hindus. Indian Christians and the nation as well must give a fervent thought to the problems and sorrows of the Indian Christians.”1
Of course, this remark had a reference to persons like, Rev. Tilak, his wife and veteran writer Laxmibai Tilak, Narayan Sheshadri, Rev. Neelkanthshastri ‘Nehemiah’ Gore, and Pandita Ramabai Saraswati who were converted to Christianity from high castes. As the majority of the Marathi Christians were converted from untouchable castes, there was no question of excommunicating them further. These people who were already among the lowest strata, could not have been pushed further down the rigid Hindu caste hierarchy.
Compared to the Catholics, the Protestants had taken a lead in missionary work in the areas surrounding Pune, Ahmednagar and Kolhapur in western Maharashtra. Among the Protestants the erstwhile high caste persons were very few and some of them excelled in various fields. The others in this sect were erstwhile dalits and were in majority. The Catholic missionaries who came much later had to restrict their work to dalit communities.2
Christian Missionaries challenge casteism, untouchability
Towards the last quarter of the nineteenth century, the Jesuit priests (members of the religious organisation Society of Jesus (S J ) started missionary work in the Ahmednagar district. Initially, Fr Otto Weishaupt, a German priest, started separate schools for the touchable and untouchable castes in the Kendal area near Rahuri. However, later settling at nearby Sangamner and considering the hostile view of high caste people towards Christianity, he decided to challenge the inhuman practices of casteism and untouchability and opened a common school there for all religions and castes. Fr Dr. Christopher Shelke who had authored the history of Christian missionaries in Ahmednagar district has noted this.3 Later other missionaries too discarded the practices of casteism and untouchability and did not accept these ideas in their missionary work among the locals. Considering the situation then, this was certainly a bold decision. This helped counseling among high and low caste people in the district.
In Ahmednagar district, initially low caste people from Mahar, Mang, Bhil and Dhanagar communities got converted to Christianity. When Catholic and Protestant sects started missionary work in this district, the casteism in Hindu religion showed its influence. Even among the so-called untouchables and low castes, each community considered itself superior to the other and therefore, refused to have any interaction with the other `low’ caste people. Thus, the dalit Christians belonging to the Mahar caste refused to have matrimonial or any kinds of social alliances with the dalit Christians belonging to the Mang caste. The situation has not improved even in this twenty first century. In his book ‘Ambedkari Chalwal : Parivartanache Sandharbha’ , Avinash Dolas has rightly commented : “These people who wanted to demolish casteism introduced casteism into Christianity.4
The foreign missionaries belonging to both Catholic and Protestant missions wanted to teach equality to a society, where casteism was deep-rooted. They concentrated on a particular caste and community though it was not their intention to preach the gospel to a particular community. They were compelled to do so due to the prevailing caste system in Hindu society. During the time of Robert De Nobili in the seventeenth century, the missionary work was done among the Brahmin community. As a result, the possibility of untouchable communities being kept away from Christianity arose. Similarly, in Maharashtra, if untouchables were to be welcomed into Christianity, it was certain that the high caste Marathas would stay away. In such a situation, the foreign missionaries selected to work among those sections of society where they would be most effective.
Mahars and Mangs were the two untouchable castes from which people accepted either Catholic or Protestant beliefs, and hence, even after conversion they could retain their homogeneity. Dr. Shelke has noted that Catholic priests initially, i.e. towards the end of nineteenth century, converted people from communities like Mahars, Mangs, Chambhars, Bhils and so on in the areas of Kendal and Sangamner.5 In a particular area, across several villages, a majority of families from the same caste got converted into Christianity. Therefore the danger of being excommunicated was averted. The original caste being the same, even after conversion these societies remained homogeneous, and as such the problems like excommunication or ban on marriages did not arise. Since their caste background was the same there was no question of untouchability or casteism among them.
Had there been missionary work across the caste spectrum from upper castes to intermediate castes like Brahmins, Marathas, Malis etc. then there would have been problem of casteism among the Maharashtrian Christians as was observed earlier among the Christians in southern India.
Ajit Lokhande, an India-born Christian researcher based in Germany, has been rather forthright in stating that in a way it was good that the high caste people from Western Maharashtra and Marathwada did not adopt Christianity. “The Mahars, not the caste Hindus, were chosen and blessed with open heart to the word of God. The missionaries never succeeded in entering the realm of caste Hindus. Was it good? Not good? It is difficult to say. Perhaps it was good so. Or else we would have had the skirmishes between castes within the Catholic Church as we see in Tamil Nadu or in Andhra Pradesh. Perhaps we would have experienced differences in the church something like Rites disputes in Kerala. Or even like the silent caste discrimination among the traditional Goan Catholics, which comes to surface on certain occasions. The practice of equality among the children of God is not to be taken for granted in the Catholic Church.’’6 Although, all children of God are equal as per the principle accepted by the Catholic society, it is not necessary that this would be implemented in practice.
The people who embraced Buddhism along with Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar comprised mainly Mahars, therefore casteism could not prevail in the neo-Buddhist community. While there were no caste conflicts among dalit Christians in Maharashtra, it cannot be denied that differences over sects surfaced after the conversions. But compared to the Catholics, the number of Protestants is low in Maharashtra, and hence the differences among these sects have not surfaced in the open.
The Catholic and Protestant missionaries, who did not believe in casteism, however, did not oppose untouchability and other caste practices in the Christian community of Southern India for three to four centuries. Had they opposed this wicked practice then, there was a danger of the high caste communities drifting away from Christian religion. Since, there was no awareness in the Christian community itself about this aspect, casteism continued openly for several centuries in Southern India and by stealth in Vasai and Goa.
If efforts are made to bring together the dalits and high castes, or for that matter any other castes and sub castes, for whatever reasons, those who consider themselves high castes do not turn up; this was the experience of the great social reformer Maharshi Vitthal Ramji Shinde in Maharashtra of the twentieth century.
Maharshi Shinde says in his book ’Bharatiya Asprusshatecha Prashna’: “The three supposedly untouchable castes of Mahars, Chambhars and Mangs did not see eye to eye when we opened schools for helping the destitute. Initially nobody used to come. Later Mahars started coming. But due to this very reason and the suspicion that our mission was to bring them all- Mahars Chambhars and Mangs- at par, the Chambhars (who despite being low castes considered themselves superior to Mahars and Mangs) stopped coming. How the already oppressed castes fail to take advantage of effort put in by well wishers due to the prevalent casteism is clear from the statistical data collected by the Depressed Classes Mission of the last five years. It establishes that the Chambars refuse to sit along with Mahars and Mangs and thus prefer not to take advantage of our mission and prefer to forgo the Mission’s benefits.”7
In the post-independence days an organised opposition to casteism started both within the Christian community and the churches. Catholic and Protestant priests started supporting the rights of dalit Christians both within the community and outside.
That castes continue to rule the lives of Indians has been proved time and again by their exclusive food habits, birth and marriage customs. The restrictions on food habits may be fast disappearing in the era of globalistion, but when it comes to marriages even among the ever-increasing tribe of migrants to the West, each detail of the caste and sub caste is looked into.
It is no different back home when it comes to the Maharashtrian Christian families. While looking for a marriage alliance, they look for people in their native places like Ahmednagar, Aurangabad, Latur, and Nashik and Kolhapur districts. For a marriage alliance they would not consider friends or brother Christians from Goa, Kerala, Mangalore or Tamil Nadu. There is no denying the fact. Therefore, Prof. Devdatta Husale has posed a question in his lecture, as the president of the fourth ‘Dalit Christian Marathi Sahitya Sammelan’, “ Why these hypocritical Christians who say caste becomes immaterial or non-existent after conversion, rush to Ahmednagar, Jalna and Kolhapur for marriage alliances? Why do they look at their place of origin? This implies that Christians still look for their original caste. How long can this fact be suppressed?” 8
In India, any person from Hindu tradition, on conversion to Christianity, Buddhism or Islam, cannot get rid of his original caste. Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar however said this is the folly of the Indian tradition. While answering the question ‘ Why conversion?’ he said, “ It is argued by Hindus that there is no point in resorting to conversion to avoid casteism, since casteism prevails in Christianity and Islam as well. Unfortunately, the fact is casteism has entered other communities too. But this has originated from Hinduism and has spread everywhere. Although there is casteism among Christians and Muslims, it is different from casteism within Hinduism. There may be casteism among Christian and Islamic communities, but it is not the main aspect of their society. When asked ‘ Who are you?’ if somebody answers ‘I am a Christian’ or ‘I am a Muslim’, the answer is adequate and satisfying. It is not necessary to ask ’What is your caste?’ The origin of casteism in Hinduism is the religion itself. Casteism in Muslim and Christian communities has no bearing on the respective religions. If Hindus ever decide to dissolve casteism, then the religion itself will pose an obstacle. But, if Christians and Muslims decide to end the practice of casteism, their religion will not be an obstacle.9
Conversion is a revolt against Chaturvana, exploitation: Rev Nirmal
Rev. Arvind Nirmal who is credited with ushering in the dalit Christian liberation movement in Maharashtra, says –‘Conversion is not the solution to all the problems arising out of being a dalit. But the act of our conversion to Christianity is our revolt against Hinduism, the religion that created dalitatva, the religion that created the Chaturvarna system and exploited us socially, economically and politically in the name of religion and imposed on us life equivalent to the animals. This religion did not allow us to lead a life of human being. Therefore, through our act of conversion, we have turned down Hinduism and revolted against it. It is immaterial whether conversion wipes out dalitatva but I feel the ‘rejections’, ‘protests’, and ‘revolts’ expressed through conversion are much more important. 10
References: -
1.Gajanan Vishwanath Ketkar, ‘ Khristi Dharma ‘, Tilak Maharashtra Vidyapeeth Suvarna Mahotsav Granth : 4, first edition 1969 (Page 231)
2.Felix Alfred Plattner, ‘ The Catholic Church in India, Yesterday and Today’, St. Paul Publications, 28-B, Chatham Lines, Allahabad – 2. Uttar Pradesh, 1984 (Pages 147 to 153).
3.Fr (Dr) Christopher Shelke, History of the missionary work in Ahmednagar district published in ‘ Niropya’ Marathi monthly in 1977, 1978, and 1979 issues, monthly edited and published by Fr Prabhudhar, Rosary Church, Ajra, Kolhapur district
4.Avinash Dolas, ‘ Ambedkari Chalval : Parivartanache Sandharbha’ , Sugava Prakashan Pune, first edition1995, (page 47)
5.Dr Christopher Shelke, ‘Niropya’ Marathi monthly, January 1978, (pages 9 and 10),
6.Ajit Lokhande, ‘Pune Jesuit Mission and Catechists in Ahmednagar District:’ A research paper presented at the conference held to commemorate the arrival of German Jesuits on the west coast of India (1854-2004), Pune 2005 (Unpublished)
7.Vitthal Ramji Shinde, ‘Bharatiya Asprushyatecha Prashna’, Koushalya Prakashan edition , N- 11, C-3/24/3, Hudco, Aurangabad, 431 003, 2003 (Page 136).
8.Sunil Adhav, ‘Dharma Khristacha, Vichar Sahityacha- Shatakatil Khristi Sahitya Sammelanadhyakshiya Bhashane wa tya waril Samiksha’ – Khristi Sahitya Sammelan (Prabandha Sangraha) Maharashtra Khristi Sahitya Parishad 1972, (Page 346)
9.Dr. Bhalchandra Dinkar Phadke (edited) ‘ Dr. Ambedkaranche Samajchintan’, Majestic Prakashan, and Marathi Tatwadnyan Mahakosh Mandal, first edition, May 1989 (Page 105, 106).
10.Sunil Adhav, ‘‘ Dharma Christacha, Vichar Sahityacha- Shatakatil Khristi Sahitya Sammelanadhyakshiya Bhashane wa tya waril Samiksha’ (Page 310)
Published by Indian Society for Promotion of Christian Knowledge, New Delhi
3. Untouchability, casteism among Christians in Maharashtra
In Maharashtra, untouchability and casteism are not observed on a large scale among the Christians. The main reason being that the majority of the converted are from erstwhile untouchable castes. Thus there is no untouchability as seen in southern India. However this has no relation to rapid urbanisation and modernisation in the State. In Maharashtra, majority of the converted Christians came from the untouchable Mahar caste. In some parts of Marathwada region, people belonging to the Mang community, another erstwhile untouchable caste, were also converted.
Although high caste persons like Neelkanthashastri `Nehemya’ Gore, Pandita Ramabai Saraswati, Rev, Narayan Waman Tilak, Laxmibai Tilak and others became Protestant Christians, it is rather strange that not a single high caste person was attracted to the Catholic sect, which is in majority among the Christians the world over. Of course, there are some historical reasons for the same. In nineteenth century Maharashtra as Western culture stepped in and Christian philosophy began influencing great reformists like Mahatma Phule, and Prarthana Samajist R G Bhandarkar, the work of Catholic priests had not even started in the State except in Mumbai and Vasai.
`In his book ‘ Khristi Dharma’, G. V. Ketkar, noted scholar and the former editor of Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak’s Marathi daily Kesari, has stated,” Indian Christians are part of our race, language and blood. India is as much their nation as is ours. Excommunicating them after conversion to Christianity is a dangerous custom for Hindus. Indian Christians and the nation as well must give a fervent thought to the problems and sorrows of the Indian Christians.”1
Of course, this remark had a reference to persons like, Rev. Tilak, his wife and veteran writer Laxmibai Tilak, Narayan Sheshadri, Rev. Neelkanthshastri ‘Nehemiah’ Gore, and Pandita Ramabai Saraswati who were converted to Christianity from high castes. As the majority of the Marathi Christians were converted from untouchable castes, there was no question of excommunicating them further. These people who were already among the lowest strata, could not have been pushed further down the rigid Hindu caste hierarchy.
Compared to the Catholics, the Protestants had taken a lead in missionary work in the areas surrounding Pune, Ahmednagar and Kolhapur in western Maharashtra. Among the Protestants the erstwhile high caste persons were very few and some of them excelled in various fields. The others in this sect were erstwhile dalits and were in majority. The Catholic missionaries who came much later had to restrict their work to dalit communities.2
Christian Missionaries challenge casteism, untouchability
Towards the last quarter of the nineteenth century, the Jesuit priests (members of the religious organisation Society of Jesus (S J ) started missionary work in the Ahmednagar district. Initially, Fr Otto Weishaupt, a German priest, started separate schools for the touchable and untouchable castes in the Kendal area near Rahuri. However, later settling at nearby Sangamner and considering the hostile view of high caste people towards Christianity, he decided to challenge the inhuman practices of casteism and untouchability and opened a common school there for all religions and castes. Fr Dr. Christopher Shelke who had authored the history of Christian missionaries in Ahmednagar district has noted this.3 Later other missionaries too discarded the practices of casteism and untouchability and did not accept these ideas in their missionary work among the locals. Considering the situation then, this was certainly a bold decision. This helped counseling among high and low caste people in the district.
In Ahmednagar district, initially low caste people from Mahar, Mang, Bhil and Dhanagar communities got converted to Christianity. When Catholic and Protestant sects started missionary work in this district, the casteism in Hindu religion showed its influence. Even among the so-called untouchables and low castes, each community considered itself superior to the other and therefore, refused to have any interaction with the other `low’ caste people. Thus, the dalit Christians belonging to the Mahar caste refused to have matrimonial or any kinds of social alliances with the dalit Christians belonging to the Mang caste. The situation has not improved even in this twenty first century. In his book ‘Ambedkari Chalwal : Parivartanache Sandharbha’ , Avinash Dolas has rightly commented : “These people who wanted to demolish casteism introduced casteism into Christianity.4
The foreign missionaries belonging to both Catholic and Protestant missions wanted to teach equality to a society, where casteism was deep-rooted. They concentrated on a particular caste and community though it was not their intention to preach the gospel to a particular community. They were compelled to do so due to the prevailing caste system in Hindu society. During the time of Robert De Nobili in the seventeenth century, the missionary work was done among the Brahmin community. As a result, the possibility of untouchable communities being kept away from Christianity arose. Similarly, in Maharashtra, if untouchables were to be welcomed into Christianity, it was certain that the high caste Marathas would stay away. In such a situation, the foreign missionaries selected to work among those sections of society where they would be most effective.
Mahars and Mangs were the two untouchable castes from which people accepted either Catholic or Protestant beliefs, and hence, even after conversion they could retain their homogeneity. Dr. Shelke has noted that Catholic priests initially, i.e. towards the end of nineteenth century, converted people from communities like Mahars, Mangs, Chambhars, Bhils and so on in the areas of Kendal and Sangamner.5 In a particular area, across several villages, a majority of families from the same caste got converted into Christianity. Therefore the danger of being excommunicated was averted. The original caste being the same, even after conversion these societies remained homogeneous, and as such the problems like excommunication or ban on marriages did not arise. Since their caste background was the same there was no question of untouchability or casteism among them.
Had there been missionary work across the caste spectrum from upper castes to intermediate castes like Brahmins, Marathas, Malis etc. then there would have been problem of casteism among the Maharashtrian Christians as was observed earlier among the Christians in southern India.
Ajit Lokhande, an India-born Christian researcher based in Germany, has been rather forthright in stating that in a way it was good that the high caste people from Western Maharashtra and Marathwada did not adopt Christianity. “The Mahars, not the caste Hindus, were chosen and blessed with open heart to the word of God. The missionaries never succeeded in entering the realm of caste Hindus. Was it good? Not good? It is difficult to say. Perhaps it was good so. Or else we would have had the skirmishes between castes within the Catholic Church as we see in Tamil Nadu or in Andhra Pradesh. Perhaps we would have experienced differences in the church something like Rites disputes in Kerala. Or even like the silent caste discrimination among the traditional Goan Catholics, which comes to surface on certain occasions. The practice of equality among the children of God is not to be taken for granted in the Catholic Church.’’6 Although, all children of God are equal as per the principle accepted by the Catholic society, it is not necessary that this would be implemented in practice.
The people who embraced Buddhism along with Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar comprised mainly Mahars, therefore casteism could not prevail in the neo-Buddhist community. While there were no caste conflicts among dalit Christians in Maharashtra, it cannot be denied that differences over sects surfaced after the conversions. But compared to the Catholics, the number of Protestants is low in Maharashtra, and hence the differences among these sects have not surfaced in the open.
The Catholic and Protestant missionaries, who did not believe in casteism, however, did not oppose untouchability and other caste practices in the Christian community of Southern India for three to four centuries. Had they opposed this wicked practice then, there was a danger of the high caste communities drifting away from Christian religion. Since, there was no awareness in the Christian community itself about this aspect, casteism continued openly for several centuries in Southern India and by stealth in Vasai and Goa.
If efforts are made to bring together the dalits and high castes, or for that matter any other castes and sub castes, for whatever reasons, those who consider themselves high castes do not turn up; this was the experience of the great social reformer Maharshi Vitthal Ramji Shinde in Maharashtra of the twentieth century.
Maharshi Shinde says in his book ’Bharatiya Asprusshatecha Prashna’: “The three supposedly untouchable castes of Mahars, Chambhars and Mangs did not see eye to eye when we opened schools for helping the destitute. Initially nobody used to come. Later Mahars started coming. But due to this very reason and the suspicion that our mission was to bring them all- Mahars Chambhars and Mangs- at par, the Chambhars (who despite being low castes considered themselves superior to Mahars and Mangs) stopped coming. How the already oppressed castes fail to take advantage of effort put in by well wishers due to the prevalent casteism is clear from the statistical data collected by the Depressed Classes Mission of the last five years. It establishes that the Chambars refuse to sit along with Mahars and Mangs and thus prefer not to take advantage of our mission and prefer to forgo the Mission’s benefits.”7
In the post-independence days an organised opposition to casteism started both within the Christian community and the churches. Catholic and Protestant priests started supporting the rights of dalit Christians both within the community and outside.
That castes continue to rule the lives of Indians has been proved time and again by their exclusive food habits, birth and marriage customs. The restrictions on food habits may be fast disappearing in the era of globalistion, but when it comes to marriages even among the ever-increasing tribe of migrants to the West, each detail of the caste and sub caste is looked into.
It is no different back home when it comes to the Maharashtrian Christian families. While looking for a marriage alliance, they look for people in their native places like Ahmednagar, Aurangabad, Latur, and Nashik and Kolhapur districts. For a marriage alliance they would not consider friends or brother Christians from Goa, Kerala, Mangalore or Tamil Nadu. There is no denying the fact. Therefore, Prof. Devdatta Husale has posed a question in his lecture, as the president of the fourth ‘Dalit Christian Marathi Sahitya Sammelan’, “ Why these hypocritical Christians who say caste becomes immaterial or non-existent after conversion, rush to Ahmednagar, Jalna and Kolhapur for marriage alliances? Why do they look at their place of origin? This implies that Christians still look for their original caste. How long can this fact be suppressed?” 8
In India, any person from Hindu tradition, on conversion to Christianity, Buddhism or Islam, cannot get rid of his original caste. Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar however said this is the folly of the Indian tradition. While answering the question ‘ Why conversion?’ he said, “ It is argued by Hindus that there is no point in resorting to conversion to avoid casteism, since casteism prevails in Christianity and Islam as well. Unfortunately, the fact is casteism has entered other communities too. But this has originated from Hinduism and has spread everywhere. Although there is casteism among Christians and Muslims, it is different from casteism within Hinduism. There may be casteism among Christian and Islamic communities, but it is not the main aspect of their society. When asked ‘ Who are you?’ if somebody answers ‘I am a Christian’ or ‘I am a Muslim’, the answer is adequate and satisfying. It is not necessary to ask ’What is your caste?’ The origin of casteism in Hinduism is the religion itself. Casteism in Muslim and Christian communities has no bearing on the respective religions. If Hindus ever decide to dissolve casteism, then the religion itself will pose an obstacle. But, if Christians and Muslims decide to end the practice of casteism, their religion will not be an obstacle.9
Conversion is a revolt against Chaturvana, exploitation: Rev Nirmal
Rev. Arvind Nirmal who is credited with ushering in the dalit Christian liberation movement in Maharashtra, says –‘Conversion is not the solution to all the problems arising out of being a dalit. But the act of our conversion to Christianity is our revolt against Hinduism, the religion that created dalitatva, the religion that created the Chaturvarna system and exploited us socially, economically and politically in the name of religion and imposed on us life equivalent to the animals. This religion did not allow us to lead a life of human being. Therefore, through our act of conversion, we have turned down Hinduism and revolted against it. It is immaterial whether conversion wipes out dalitatva but I feel the ‘rejections’, ‘protests’, and ‘revolts’ expressed through conversion are much more important. 10
References: -
1.Gajanan Vishwanath Ketkar, ‘ Khristi Dharma ‘, Tilak Maharashtra Vidyapeeth Suvarna Mahotsav Granth : 4, first edition 1969 (Page 231)
2.Felix Alfred Plattner, ‘ The Catholic Church in India, Yesterday and Today’, St. Paul Publications, 28-B, Chatham Lines, Allahabad – 2. Uttar Pradesh, 1984 (Pages 147 to 153).
3.Fr (Dr) Christopher Shelke, History of the missionary work in Ahmednagar district published in ‘ Niropya’ Marathi monthly in 1977, 1978, and 1979 issues, monthly edited and published by Fr Prabhudhar, Rosary Church, Ajra, Kolhapur district
4.Avinash Dolas, ‘ Ambedkari Chalval : Parivartanache Sandharbha’ , Sugava Prakashan Pune, first edition1995, (page 47)
5.Dr Christopher Shelke, ‘Niropya’ Marathi monthly, January 1978, (pages 9 and 10),
6.Ajit Lokhande, ‘Pune Jesuit Mission and Catechists in Ahmednagar District:’ A research paper presented at the conference held to commemorate the arrival of German Jesuits on the west coast of India (1854-2004), Pune 2005 (Unpublished)
7.Vitthal Ramji Shinde, ‘Bharatiya Asprushyatecha Prashna’, Koushalya Prakashan edition , N- 11, C-3/24/3, Hudco, Aurangabad, 431 003, 2003 (Page 136).
8.Sunil Adhav, ‘Dharma Khristacha, Vichar Sahityacha- Shatakatil Khristi Sahitya Sammelanadhyakshiya Bhashane wa tya waril Samiksha’ – Khristi Sahitya Sammelan (Prabandha Sangraha) Maharashtra Khristi Sahitya Parishad 1972, (Page 346)
9.Dr. Bhalchandra Dinkar Phadke (edited) ‘ Dr. Ambedkaranche Samajchintan’, Majestic Prakashan, and Marathi Tatwadnyan Mahakosh Mandal, first edition, May 1989 (Page 105, 106).
10.Sunil Adhav, ‘‘ Dharma Christacha, Vichar Sahityacha- Shatakatil Khristi Sahitya Sammelanadhyakshiya Bhashane wa tya waril Samiksha’ (Page 310)
